NATURAL APPROACH

8. Natural approach

Definition of The Natural approach is one of the communicative approaches to language teaching of the present time. It is based on the work of Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen who published their book The Natural Approach in 1983. The book contains theoretical parts with regard to second language acquisition theory prepared by Krashen, as well as sections on classroom implementations prepared by Terrell.

Characteristics 

The natural approach is one of the, "language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in non formal settings." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 190) Krashen and Terrell saw the approach as a, "traditional approach to language teaching [because it is] based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native language." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 178) 

The approach focuses on input, comprehension, and meaningful communication and puts less emphasis on grammar, teacher monologues, direct repetition and accuracy. 

The theory as well as the design and procedures in The Natural Approach are based on Krashen's language acquisition theory. The basic principles of Krashen's theory are outlined in his Monitor Model (1982), a model of second language acquisition consisting of five hypotheses: 

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis makes a distinction between acquisition and learning. Krashen defines acquisition as, "unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 181) Learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process in which rules of a language are developed; this process only occurs through formal teaching, and cannot lead to acquisition. 

2. According to the monitor hypothesis, "the acquired system initiates a speaker's utterances and is responsible for spontaneous language use." (Lightbown & Spada 2006: 37) The learned system, by contrast, has the function of a, "monitor or editor that checks and repairs the output of the acquired system." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 181) This monitor can, "either operate post-hoc in the form of self-correction or as a last minute change of plan just before production." (Gramley & Gramley 2008: 97) Moreover there are three conditions which have a limited effect on the success of the monitor: time, focus on form and correctness, and knowledge of rules. 

3. The natural order hypothesis says that, "the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 182) This natural order can be found in first language acquisition as well as in second language acquisition. 

4. According to the input hypothesis, "acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and that contains i+1." (Lightbown & Spada 2006: 37) The "i" stands for the acquirer's current level of proficiency. He is able to move to a higher stage by understanding language containing "i+1" (where "+1" stands for language which is slightly beyond the acquirer's current level of competence). 

5. The affective filter hypothesis states that there is an "affective filter" which can act as a, "barrier that prevents learners from acquiring language even when appropriate input is available." (Lightbown & Spada 2006: 37) With regard to second language acquisition affective variables can be attitudes or emotions like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. A low affective filter is always desirable because a high affective filter, which can be found for example with anxious learners, "prevents acquisition from taking place." (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 183) Krashen also tried to explain variations in success in language acquisition with this hypothesis; in particular he used it to explain the advantages of children over adults regarding language acquisition. 


With regard to language teaching Krashen's hypotheses imply: 
"as much comprehensible input as possible" (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 182) 
materials and aids that foster comprehension 
focus on reading and listening 
meaningful communication and interesting input to keep the affective filter low 

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

7. Cooperative learning

 Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.

Documented results include improved academic achievement, improved behavior and attendance, increased self-confidence and motivation, and increased liking of school and classmates. Cooperative learning is also relatively easy to implement and is inexpensive.

Here are some typical strategies that can be used with any subject, in almost any grade, and without a special curriculum:

Ø  Group Investigations are structured to emphasize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis and evaluation. Students work to produce a group project, which they may have a hand in selecting.

Ø  STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Divisions) is used in grades 2-12. Students with varying academic abilities are assigned to 4- or 5-member teams in order to study what has been initially taught by the teacher and to help each reach his or her highest level of achievement. Students are then tested individually. Teams earn certificates or other recognition based on the degree to which all team members have progressed over their past records.

Ø  Jigsaw II is used with narrative material in grades 3-12. Each team member is responsible for learning a specific part of a topic. After meeting with members of other groups, who are "expert" in the same part, the "experts" return to their own groups and present their findings. Team members then are quizzed on all topics.

Cooperative learning techniques can be loosely categorized by the skill that each enhances (Barkley, Cross and Major, 2005), although it is important to recognize that many cooperative learning exercises can be developed to fit within multiple categories. Categories include: discussion, reciprocal, graphic organizers, writing, and problem solving. Each category includes a number of potential structures to guide the development of a cooperative learning exercise. For example, the category of problem-solving helps to develop strategic and analytical skills and includes exercises such as the send-a-problem, three-stay one-stray, structured problem solving, and analytical teams.

Extensive research has compared cooperative learning with traditional classroom instruction using the same teachers, curriculum, and assessments. On the average:

Ø  Students who engage in cooperative learning learn significantly more, remember it longer, and develop better critical-thinking skills than their counterparts in traditional lecture classes.

Ø  Students enjoy cooperative learning more than traditional lecture classes, so they are more likely to attend classes and finish the course.

Ø  Students are going to go on to jobs that require teamwork. Cooperative learning helps students develop the skills necessary to work on projects too difficult and complex for any one person to do in a reasonable amount of time. 

Ø  Cooperative learning processes prepare students to assess outcomes linked to accreditation.

BLENDED LEARNING

6. BLENDED LEARNING

A blended learning approach combines face to face classroom methods with computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional approach. In the past, digital materials have served in a supplementary role, helping to support face to face instruction.

For example, a blended approach to a traditional, face to face course might mean that the class meets once per week instead of the usual three-session format Learning activities that otherwise would have taken place during classroom time can be moved online.

As of now, there is no consensus on a single agree-upon definition for blended learning. The Resources page contains cites to several articles that provide definitions. In addition, the terms "blended," "hybrid," and "mixed-mode" are used interchangeably in current research literature. For the purposes of the Blended Learning Initiative at Penn State, the term "blended" is preferred.

The goal of a blended approach is to join the best aspects of both face to face and online instruction. Classroom time can be used to engage students in advanced interactive experiences.  Meanwhile, the online portion of the course can provide students with multimedia-rich content at any time of day, anywhere the student has internet access, from Penn State computer labs, the coffee shop, or the students’ homes. This allows for an increase in scheduling flexibility for students.

In addition to flexibility and convenience for students, according to research shared at the ALN Conference Workshop on Blended Learning & Higher Education November 17, 2005, there is early evidence that a blended instructional approach can result in learning outcome gains and increased enrollment retention.

Blended learning is on the rise in higher education. 93% of higher ed instructors and admin say they are using blended learning strategies somewhere in their institution. 7 in 10 expect more than 40% of their schools’ courses to be blended by 2013.

Ø  There are no rules in place to prescribe what the ideal blend might be (Bonk reference). The term “blended” encompasses a broad continuum, and can include any integration of face to face and online instructional content. The blend of face to face and online materials will vary depending on the content, the needs of the students, and the preferences of the instructor. See the section of this site titled Instructional Strategies for information on selecting an ideal blend and designing a blended course.

Considerations

Creating high-quality blended instruction can present considerable challenges. Foremost is the need for resources to create the online materials to be used in the courses. Materials development is a time and labor intensive process, just as it is in any instructional medium. In addition, blended instruction is likely to be a new concept to many students and faculty. Instructional designers involved in course development or redesign will need to be able to answer questions related to:

§  what blended instruction is

§  why blended instruction  is employed 

§  how best to leverage the advantages of a blended approach      

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENT

1.                        MULTIPLE INTELLIGENT

Multiple secara bahasa berarti perkalian atau kelipatan seperti dalam istilahlowest common multiple (kelipatan persekutuan kecil. Multiple juga berarti ganda seperti dalam istilah multiple choice (pilihan ganda). Intelligence berarti kecerdasan. Jadi, secara bahasa Multiple Intelligences diartikan Kecerdasan Majemuk. Ada juga yang mengartikan Kecerdasan Beragam. Bahkan ada yang menjadikannya sebagai bahasa Indonesia serapan dengan istilah “multipel intelijensi.

Adapun pengertian Multiple Intelligences secara operasional adalah teori yang mengatakan bahwa ada delapan jenis kecerdasan (mungkin bahkan lebih banyak lagi tetapi belum teridentifikasi). Masing-masing kecerdasan yang berbeda-beda ini dapat digambarkan oleh ciri-ciri, kegiatan-kegiatan, dan minat-minat tertentu. Kedelapan jenis kecerdasan tersebut adalah:

(1) kecerdasan bahasa,

(2) kecerdasan matematika dan logika, 

(3) kecerdasan spasial,

(4) kecerdasan musik,

(5) kecerdasan kinestetik,

(6) kecerdasan interpersonal,

(7) kecerdasan intrapersonal, dan

(8) kecerdasan naturalis.

 A.  Kecerdasan linguistik (bahasa) adalah kemampuan menggunakan kata secara efektif baik secara lisan maupun tulis. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kemampuan manipulasi tata bahasa, bunyi bahasa, makna bahasa dan dimensi praktis penggunaan bahasa. 

B.  Kecerdasan Matematis-logis adalah kemampuan menggunakan angka dengan baik dan melakukan penalaran yang benar. Ciri ragam kecerdasan ini adalah kemampuan memakai penalaran induktif dan deduktif, memecahkan berbagai masalah abstrak dan memahami hubungan sebab akibat. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kepekaan pada pola hubungan logis, pernyataan dan dalil, fungsi logis dan abstraksi-abstraksi lain.

C.  Kecerdasan Visual-Spasial (Ruang dan Gambar) adalah kemampuan mempersepsi dunia visual-spasial secara akurat dan mentransformasikannya. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kepekaan pada warna, garis, bentuk, ruang dan hubungan antarunsur tersebut. Kecerdasan ini juga meliputi kemampuan membayangkan, mempresentasikan ide secara visual atau spasial, dan mengorientasikan diri secara tepat pada matriks spasial.

D.   Kecerdasan Kinestetik (tubuh) adalah kemampuan menggunakan seluruh tubuh untuk mengekspresikan ide dan perasaan dan keterampilan menggunakan tangan untuk menciptakan atau mengubah sesuatu. Ciri kecerdasan ini adalah kemampuan mengontrol dan menafsirkan aneka gerakan tubuh, memanipulasi dan membentuk harmoni antara tubuh dan pikiran. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kemampuan-kemampuan fisik yang spesifik seperti koordinasi, keseimbangan, keterampilan, kekuatan, kelenturan, dan kecepatan maupun kemampuan menerima rangsangan dan hal yang berkaitan dengan sentuhan.

E.  Kecerdasan Musikal adalah kemampuan menangani bentuk-bentuk musik dengan cara mempersepsi, membedakan, menggubah dan mengekspresikan. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kepekaan pada irama, melodi, dan warna nada atau suara suatu lagu. Kecerdasan ini beupa tingkatan sensitivitas pada pola-pola suara dan kemampuan untuk merespon musik secara emosional.

F. Kecerdasan Interpersonal (sosial) adalah kemampuan mempersepsi dan membedakan suasana hati, maksud, motivasi, temperamen, tujuan serta perasaan orang lain. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kepekaan pada ekspresi wajah, suara, gerak isyarat, termasuk juga kemampuan membedakan berbagai macam tanda interpersonal dan kemampuan menanggapi secara efektif tanda tersebut dengan tindakan pragmatis tertentu seperti mempengaruhi sekelompok orang untuk melakukan tindakan tertentu.

G.   Kecerdasan Intrapersonal (diri) adalah kemampuan memahami diri sendiri dan bertindak berdasarkan pemahaman tersebut. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kemampuan memahami kekuatan dan keterbatasan diri, kesadaran akan suasana hati, maksud, motivasi, temperamen, dan keinginan, serta kemampuan berdisiplin diri, memahami dan menghargai diri.

H. Kecerdasan Naturalis (alam) adalah keahlian mengenali, memahami dan mengategorikan flora dan fauna di lingkugan sekitar. Kecerdasan ini meliputi kepekaan pada fenomena alam.